Edward Fry in his epochal work on Specific Performance prophesied:
"It may be suggested that [] a perfect system of jurisprudence ought to enforce the actual performance of contracts of every kind and class, except only when there are circumstances which render such enforcement unnecessary or inexpedient, and that it ought to be assumed that every contract is specifically enforceable until the contrary be shown. But so broad a proposition has never, it is believed, been asserted by any of the judges of the court of chancery, or their successors in the high court of justice, though, if prophecy were the function of a law writer, it might be suggested that they will more and more approximate to such a rule."
This prophecy did not become true in English law but might in India.
Readers may recollect the three recent posts in this blog (here, here, and here) on the proposed amendments to the Specific Relief Act, 1963. In this post, we critically evaluate the proposed amendment making specific performance as the default remedy. As a prelude to this discussion, we draw readers' attention to a previous post in this blog where we stated that the proposed amendments sought to do away with the general rule in contract law that damages would be the default remedy and specific performance would be the exception.
"It may be suggested that [] a perfect system of jurisprudence ought to enforce the actual performance of contracts of every kind and class, except only when there are circumstances which render such enforcement unnecessary or inexpedient, and that it ought to be assumed that every contract is specifically enforceable until the contrary be shown. But so broad a proposition has never, it is believed, been asserted by any of the judges of the court of chancery, or their successors in the high court of justice, though, if prophecy were the function of a law writer, it might be suggested that they will more and more approximate to such a rule."
This prophecy did not become true in English law but might in India.
Readers may recollect the three recent posts in this blog (here, here, and here) on the proposed amendments to the Specific Relief Act, 1963. In this post, we critically evaluate the proposed amendment making specific performance as the default remedy. As a prelude to this discussion, we draw readers' attention to a previous post in this blog where we stated that the proposed amendments sought to do away with the general rule in contract law that damages would be the default remedy and specific performance would be the exception.
The amendment Bill seeks to alter the legal position which has been in vogue for more than 200 years (see, for instance, Harnett v Yielding (1805)). Although Scots law and certain civil law jurisdictions have specific performance as a default remedy, damages as the default remedy is the near universal rule in common law jurisdictions. The present amendments seek to alter this approach in India.
We argue in this post that the said proposal should be re-thought. We supply reasons in this post for this. Before this, we wish to give two disclaimers: One, most of the members of the Expert Committee who proposed the amendment have tremendous experience in the subject. Yet, with a lot of deference, we state that the approach might not be altogether correct. The second, and the most important disclaimer is that we have not yet read the report as it is not in the public domain, and therefore, we are not in a position to completely fathom why the report so suggests. Anyway, we can only hazard a guess: India has a dismal rate of contract enforcement, and the report intends to correct this state of affairs by making such contracts specifically enforceable. We also think that this paper (by one of the members of the Committee) might throw some light on why the Committee so proposed.
Before Critiquing the Proposal, let us briefly see what the amendment proposes.
Proposed Amendments on Specific Relief
Section 10 of the existing 1963, which enumerates cases where, and conditions in which, specific performance of contract is enforceable, is sought to be replaced with the following provision: “10. The specific performance of a contract shall be enforced by the court subject to the provisions contained in sub-section (2) of section 11, section 14 and section 16.”
Note that the newly proposed Section 10 refers to Section 14. The existing Section 14, which enumerates grounds that are not specifically enforceable, is sought to be replaced with the following:
“14. The following contracts cannot be specifically enforced, namely:—
(a) where a party to the contract has obtained substituted performance of contract in accordance with the provisions of section 20;
(b) a contract, the performance of which involves the performance of a continuous duty which the court cannot supervise;
(c) a contract which is so dependent on the personal qualifications of the parties that the court cannot enforce specific performance of its material terms; and
(d) a contract which is in its nature determinable."
Except for ground 14(a) above, the rest of the grounds are available in the existing Section 14. The new Section 14 proposed does away with few of the existing grounds and the one which we are concerned about is where where compensation for breach is an adequate remedy. The proposed Section 14 replaces this ground with where the victim of breach has obtained substituted performance.
Note that the existing sub-heading for Sections 20 to 24 of the 1963 Act, "Discretion and Powers of Court" is sought to be replaced with the sub-heading “Substituted performance of contracts, etc.”. The existing Section 20 titled "Discretion as to decreeing specific performance" is sought to be replaced with a section on Substituted Performance.The new Section 20 provides the victim of breach "the option of substituted performance through a third party or by his own agency."
Therefore, a victim of breach under the new regime would have the following options:
- seek substituted performance under the new S. 20,
- seek specific performance under the new S. 10, if he has not sought substituted performance under the new S. 14, or
- claim damages or liquidated damages [the new S 20(1) on substituted performance starts off with the phrase "without prejudice to the generality of the provisions contained in the Indian Contract Act, 1872...".]
Thus, the victim of breach can claim any of these things. The law as it stands now provides that specific performance cannot be ordered when compensation for non-performance is an adequate relief [S. 14(1)(a)].
Strictly speaking, it is not that specific performance is proposed to be made as the default remedy; rather, all three (or four, if you include liquidated damages) are the default remedies.
Why is Specific Performance not the Default Remedy?
Specific Performance is not the default remedy but damages is, in India. The law allows the promisor to 'efficiently' breach the contract, which under circumstances, is socially optimal (see this post).(this ground is not without counter-arguments). In many cases, specific performance is unduly harsh on the promisor (more on this later).
What is the Problem with Damages being the Default Remedy?
Damages is difficult to prove. Even then at times parties suffer special damages but for reasons do not foresee (although they should) at the time of contracting. Owing to the difficulty of proof, damages are, most of the times, undercompensatory. In many cases in India, the road to recovering the money is a long drawn process and results in substantial injustice to the victim of the breach. In pursuing the legal remedies, the victim is often not even compensated for the costs incurred. The victim has better information than the courts as to the adequacy of damages, and the courts/ legislature should not forcibly impose such a standard on the victim.
Alan Schwartz wrote an important paper titled "The Case for Specific Performance" 89 Yale L. J. 271 (1979) where he argued that the victim has to be provided the option of deciding to go for damages or specific relief depending on which of those two will properly compensate her. Schwartz argued:
"The compensation goal of contract law can be achieved by requiring the promisor to pay damages or by requiring the promisor to render the promised performance. Under current law, a promisee is entitled to a damage award as of right but the court retains discretion to decide whether specific performance should be granted. Because specific performance is a superior method for achieving the compensation goal, promisees should be able to obtain specific performance on request."
[The compensation goal that Schwartz was referring to was to put the victim in the position as if the contract was performed.]
This is what the Bill proposed to do: provide the victim the option to either choose, without limit, specific performance or damages (substituted performance can by assumed to be a type of damages)
Which of these Two, then?
Thus, the Bill seeks to make out a strong case for specific performance. But this should not be so. The reason is the fine balancing act played by contract law between the victim of the breach and the promisor who broke the contract. What is this fine balancing act about?
For a movie-maker, a conflict between characters is good because that gives scope to develop a character and take the movie forward. But conflict is not good in real life. Law should ensure that conflict is either resolved, or at the least, avoided. When specific performance is the default remedy, the conflict is neither avoided nor resolved but the promisor and the victim are put in a conflict zone, ripe for the deepening of conflict and even for sabotage of one's interests by the other. To take an analogy, specific performance as the default remedy is like death penalty in criminal law; it calls for the blood of the guilty. We quote Lord Hoffmann extensively in this part of the post; he puts it so aptly: "[The order for specific performance] yokes the parties together in a continuing hostile relationship. [It] prolongs the battle." (Co-operative Insurance Society Ltd v. Argyll Stores [1997] UKHL 17).
So, by awarding damages, law seeks to provide the equivalent to the promisee's expectation out of the contract. Damages put an end to the warring parties and protects the expectation interests of the victim. Lord Hoffmann says: "A remedy which enables [the victim] to secure, in money terms, more than the performance due to him is unjust... An award of damages [] brings the litigation to an end. The defendant pays damages, the forensic link between them is severed, they go their separate ways and the wounds of conflict can heal."
That law does a miserable job out of protecting the expectation interest of the victim, especially in the Indian context, is no excuse for putting the parties in the hostile zone by making specific performance the default remedy or providing a chance to the victim to get more out of the breach than what warrants. We always look for shortcuts instead of reforming what is to be reformed: the judicial system and the delays. We bye-pass it by 'reforming' only the contract law enforcement parts of it, and do a bad job with it.
Consider this example: There is a village Sitapur where Ramu, a mango retailer, promises to deliver 100 kg of mangoes to Gowri for Rs. 1000 (Rs. 10/ kg) on a particular date. Ramu thinks he will invest Rs. 800 that he has with him for buying mangoes from the wholesale market, sell it to Gowri, and get Rs. 200 as profit (at Rs. 2/kg). On the date when he is supposed to go to the wholesale market, his child falls sick and is to be admitted in the hospital. Ramu expects that he will have to spend about Rs. 700 for the hospital. So he tells Gowri that he will not be able to perform the contract. Gowri is angry at Ramu and shouts at Ramu that he is no man as he cannot even keep his promise! So she threatens to teach Ramu a lesson. Gowri enquires with another retailer Shyamu who agrees to sell the mangoes at Rs. 1100 (at Rs. 11/ kg). Still angry at Ramu, she gives a complaint to the village Panchayat. The elders of the Panchayat summons both Ramu and Gowri and a sitting is held on a sunny Sunday. Ramu, whose daughter's surgery is scheduled to be held the next day attends the sitting. After hearing both the parties, the Panchayat says that even the Parliament of India in its infinite wisdom has amended the Specific Relief Act, 1963 to give the option to the victim of breach to decide on whether the victim wants specific performance or damages. So the elders ask Gowri. Gowri says she wants specific performance. Ramu's implores with Gowri to forgive him and his cries that unless he pays up Rs. 700 to the hospital, his daughter will not be operated on and might die fails to move Gowri. Suddenly Shyamu jumps up and says he'll provide a solution. He says that if Gowri buys Shyamu's mangoes at Rs. 11/ kg and if Ramu pays to Gowri that Rs. 1/ kg extra that Gowri has to shell out to Shyamu, Gowri will get the mangoes, Shyamu will make a profit (at Rs. 3/kg) and Ramu will have to shell out Rs. 1/ kg (Rs. 100), which he will be able to do even after paying up for his daughter's surgery. Shyamu says if the solution he proposed is adopted, Shyamu, Gowri and Ramu will all get what they want. What should the Panchayat do?
We'll leave the readers to answer the question in the way they wish to but we'll conclude with the words of Lord Hoffmann: "[T]he purpose of the law of contract is not to punish wrongdoing but to satisfy the expectations of the party entitled to performance... From a wider perspective, it cannot be in the public interest for the courts to require someone to carry on business at a loss if there is any plausible alternative by which the other party can be given compensation."
[Note: In understanding and writing several on concepts of Contract Law Theory, this blawgger has substantially used Mindy Chen-Wishart's superb text book on Contract Law. The specialty of the book is it presents theoretical aspects of contract law in a simple manner.]
Strictly speaking, it is not that specific performance is proposed to be made as the default remedy; rather, all three (or four, if you include liquidated damages) are the default remedies.
Why is Specific Performance not the Default Remedy?
Specific Performance is not the default remedy but damages is, in India. The law allows the promisor to 'efficiently' breach the contract, which under circumstances, is socially optimal (see this post).(this ground is not without counter-arguments). In many cases, specific performance is unduly harsh on the promisor (more on this later).
What is the Problem with Damages being the Default Remedy?
Damages is difficult to prove. Even then at times parties suffer special damages but for reasons do not foresee (although they should) at the time of contracting. Owing to the difficulty of proof, damages are, most of the times, undercompensatory. In many cases in India, the road to recovering the money is a long drawn process and results in substantial injustice to the victim of the breach. In pursuing the legal remedies, the victim is often not even compensated for the costs incurred. The victim has better information than the courts as to the adequacy of damages, and the courts/ legislature should not forcibly impose such a standard on the victim.
Alan Schwartz wrote an important paper titled "The Case for Specific Performance" 89 Yale L. J. 271 (1979) where he argued that the victim has to be provided the option of deciding to go for damages or specific relief depending on which of those two will properly compensate her. Schwartz argued:
"The compensation goal of contract law can be achieved by requiring the promisor to pay damages or by requiring the promisor to render the promised performance. Under current law, a promisee is entitled to a damage award as of right but the court retains discretion to decide whether specific performance should be granted. Because specific performance is a superior method for achieving the compensation goal, promisees should be able to obtain specific performance on request."
[The compensation goal that Schwartz was referring to was to put the victim in the position as if the contract was performed.]
This is what the Bill proposed to do: provide the victim the option to either choose, without limit, specific performance or damages (substituted performance can by assumed to be a type of damages)
Which of these Two, then?
Thus, the Bill seeks to make out a strong case for specific performance. But this should not be so. The reason is the fine balancing act played by contract law between the victim of the breach and the promisor who broke the contract. What is this fine balancing act about?
For a movie-maker, a conflict between characters is good because that gives scope to develop a character and take the movie forward. But conflict is not good in real life. Law should ensure that conflict is either resolved, or at the least, avoided. When specific performance is the default remedy, the conflict is neither avoided nor resolved but the promisor and the victim are put in a conflict zone, ripe for the deepening of conflict and even for sabotage of one's interests by the other. To take an analogy, specific performance as the default remedy is like death penalty in criminal law; it calls for the blood of the guilty. We quote Lord Hoffmann extensively in this part of the post; he puts it so aptly: "[The order for specific performance] yokes the parties together in a continuing hostile relationship. [It] prolongs the battle." (Co-operative Insurance Society Ltd v. Argyll Stores [1997] UKHL 17).
So, by awarding damages, law seeks to provide the equivalent to the promisee's expectation out of the contract. Damages put an end to the warring parties and protects the expectation interests of the victim. Lord Hoffmann says: "A remedy which enables [the victim] to secure, in money terms, more than the performance due to him is unjust... An award of damages [] brings the litigation to an end. The defendant pays damages, the forensic link between them is severed, they go their separate ways and the wounds of conflict can heal."
That law does a miserable job out of protecting the expectation interest of the victim, especially in the Indian context, is no excuse for putting the parties in the hostile zone by making specific performance the default remedy or providing a chance to the victim to get more out of the breach than what warrants. We always look for shortcuts instead of reforming what is to be reformed: the judicial system and the delays. We bye-pass it by 'reforming' only the contract law enforcement parts of it, and do a bad job with it.
Consider this example: There is a village Sitapur where Ramu, a mango retailer, promises to deliver 100 kg of mangoes to Gowri for Rs. 1000 (Rs. 10/ kg) on a particular date. Ramu thinks he will invest Rs. 800 that he has with him for buying mangoes from the wholesale market, sell it to Gowri, and get Rs. 200 as profit (at Rs. 2/kg). On the date when he is supposed to go to the wholesale market, his child falls sick and is to be admitted in the hospital. Ramu expects that he will have to spend about Rs. 700 for the hospital. So he tells Gowri that he will not be able to perform the contract. Gowri is angry at Ramu and shouts at Ramu that he is no man as he cannot even keep his promise! So she threatens to teach Ramu a lesson. Gowri enquires with another retailer Shyamu who agrees to sell the mangoes at Rs. 1100 (at Rs. 11/ kg). Still angry at Ramu, she gives a complaint to the village Panchayat. The elders of the Panchayat summons both Ramu and Gowri and a sitting is held on a sunny Sunday. Ramu, whose daughter's surgery is scheduled to be held the next day attends the sitting. After hearing both the parties, the Panchayat says that even the Parliament of India in its infinite wisdom has amended the Specific Relief Act, 1963 to give the option to the victim of breach to decide on whether the victim wants specific performance or damages. So the elders ask Gowri. Gowri says she wants specific performance. Ramu's implores with Gowri to forgive him and his cries that unless he pays up Rs. 700 to the hospital, his daughter will not be operated on and might die fails to move Gowri. Suddenly Shyamu jumps up and says he'll provide a solution. He says that if Gowri buys Shyamu's mangoes at Rs. 11/ kg and if Ramu pays to Gowri that Rs. 1/ kg extra that Gowri has to shell out to Shyamu, Gowri will get the mangoes, Shyamu will make a profit (at Rs. 3/kg) and Ramu will have to shell out Rs. 1/ kg (Rs. 100), which he will be able to do even after paying up for his daughter's surgery. Shyamu says if the solution he proposed is adopted, Shyamu, Gowri and Ramu will all get what they want. What should the Panchayat do?
We'll leave the readers to answer the question in the way they wish to but we'll conclude with the words of Lord Hoffmann: "[T]he purpose of the law of contract is not to punish wrongdoing but to satisfy the expectations of the party entitled to performance... From a wider perspective, it cannot be in the public interest for the courts to require someone to carry on business at a loss if there is any plausible alternative by which the other party can be given compensation."
[Note: In understanding and writing several on concepts of Contract Law Theory, this blawgger has substantially used Mindy Chen-Wishart's superb text book on Contract Law. The specialty of the book is it presents theoretical aspects of contract law in a simple manner.]
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